Self Evaluation

What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

I'd have to say completion and format.

What two aspects of  my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement? 

Organization  and timeliness.

 

What do I believe my overall grade should be for this  unit?

Somewhere in the B's

How could I perform better in the next unit?

Preparation and improving skills to load on blog.

At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?

As the course continues, I'm but enjoying how the materials presented is piecing together. I spent a lot of time on the section about the heart.

At what moment did you feel most distanced from the course?

Loading the assignments to the blog site. It can be a little challenging.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that  you find most affirming and helpful?

Thank you for the extension.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?

I did not experience this

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)

The links to the ethical essays section were sites that really interest me, and I'd want to look into them more.

Cardiovascular System and Blood

Cardiovascular System And Blood

I.  Cardiovascular System

    The Heart

   Blood Vessels

   Cardiovascular Pathways

   Disorders

II.  Blood

    Function and Composition

   

   Red Blood Cells 

   White Blood Cells

   Platelets

   Sickle Cell 

   Blood Types

   Blood Pressure and Pulse

The Cardiovascular System and Blood

The cardiovascular system distributes blood throughout the entire body. The heart works as a pump distributing blood through a network of blood vessels with which the blood flows. The blood carries the substances to be exchanged at the cellular level and is important to cell functioning.The circulation of the blood refreshes the cells in all parts of the body in several ways. When blood enters the lungs, oxygen enters and CO2 leaves. As the blood enters the kidneys the wastes are filtered, and nutrients are picked up in the intestines. Amino acids are absorbed in the blood and proteins and fats are returned. The lymphatic system collects excess tissue fluid and sends it to the cardiovascular system. Both blood and lymph are tissue fluid     

The Heart

The heart is a muscular organ that sits behind the sternum in the chest area. It is acorn shaped with the apex tilted slightly to the left. There are four chambers, divided to the right and left by the sternum. The are two upper chambers. The right atrium receives oxygen depleted blood from throughout the by the inferior and superior vena cava. And the opposite is true for the left atrium which receives oxygen rich blood from the lung by the pulmonary veins. Blood is pumped from the lower chambers called ventricles. Because of this they are thicker and more muscular. The right ventricle sends oxygen depleted blood to the lungs by the pulmonary arteries. And the left ventricle sends oxygen rich blood throughout the body through the aorta. It is known as a double pump because the left ventricle sends blood throughout the body and the right ventricle sends blood to the lungs. Myocardium is the cardiac muscle lining the heart walls.

To keep the flow of blood in the right direction and to prevent backflow the heart has four valves. Two atrioventricular (AV) valves are between the atria and ventricle. The valve on the right is called the tricuspid valve and the valve on the left is the bicuspid. They are both held up by stringlike supports that attach to the walls of the heart. The other two valves called semilunar valves prevent backflow as blood is leaving the heart. The pulmonary semilunar valve on the right and the aortic semilunar valve on the left. 

Heart contraction moves blood throughout the body with it's pumping action. This contraction is known as the heartbeat. There are two beats that make up the cardiac cycle. The first contraction of both atria and the second contraction of both ventricles making the sound "lupdup". The contraction or working phase is called systolic and at relaxation it is called diastolic. Intercalated disks lets cells of the atria and ventricle contract by conduction. Pericardium is the thick covering around the heart having two layers with the inner layer secreting a fluid that allows the heart to move when it beats. 

An internal conduction system of nodal tissue is located in two areas of the atrium. This cardiac muscle tissue has nervous and muscular functions. The heartbeat is initiated in the upper right atrium by the sinoatrial node contracting the atria then as the signal reaches the atrioventicular node at the base of the right atrium the ventricles contract. 

Working together with other parts of the body, the medulla oblongata controls parasympathetic and sympathetic responses of the heartbeat. Hormones from the Adrenal medulla can stimulate the heart to beat faster. 

Blood Vessels

There are three types of blood vessels, arteries, capillaries, and veins. Each serve a different purpose. Arteries distribute blood throughout the body, capillaries facilitate exchange of substances and veins collect blood from the body. 

Arteries carry oxygen rich blood going away from the heart. Made up of three layers, the endothelium is the thin inner layer. Muscle tissue and a thin layer of elastic form the middle layer and connective tissue form the outer layer. Arteries are thicker and under more pressure. Arterioles are smaller arteries that branch into capillaries. When they constrict or dilate it effects blood pressure. By placing the middle and index fingers against the blood vessels of the radial or carotid artery a pulse reading can be taken that equals the heart rate. Other areas where the pulse can be felt  are in the arteries close to the skin. Other than the carotid and the radial there are five others: the brachial on the upper arm, aortic arch by the heart, abdominal aorta by the stomach, femoral arteries on the thigh , and the popliteal arteries near the knees. The average heart rate is between 60 to 80 beats per minute for adults.

Capillaries are microscopic vessels found throughout the body covering about 6,300 sq. meters. Made up of a single thin layer of endethelial cells the thin layer allows diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and wastes. Blood capillaries re-circulate blood and lymph capillaries help rid waste. Where exchange takes place is in the capillary bed, a web of vessels between an arteriole and a venule. Exchange is caused by blood pressure and osmotic pressure. Water leaves the capillary ends by difference in pressure at the arterial end and in reverse water moves into capillary ends by difference in pressure at the venule end. Wastes and carbon dioxide are diffused into capillaries. However, red blood cells and plasma proteins are too large to exit capillaries. Capillaries are also found surrounding the alveoli in the lungs. The thin tissue of alveoli lets oxygen cross through to red blood cells where hemoglobin holds oxygen. 

           

Veins collect blood to return to the heart and are similar in structure to arteries. Also made of the same three layer as arteries but having a thinner middle and outer layer. This makes them thinner. Veins have one-way valves that prevent backflow. There is less pressure in veins and so the flow of blood is assisted by three factors. Veins have one-way valves to regulate flow going to the heart. The skeletal muscle pump contracts the muscles causing blood to move and the respiratory pump expands the thoracic cavity in an action that moves blood as well. Between a vein and a capillary there is a venule.     

Cardiovascular Pathways

There are two pathways for the circulation of blood. Blood reaches the lungs by the path of the pulmonary circuit. The circuit loops from the body to the right atrium, pulmonary trunk, right and left pulmonary arteries and then to the lungs. From the arterioles blood is delivered to the capillaries where carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is absorbed. Then the pulmonary venules lead to the four veins and to the left atrium. Pulmonary arteries carry oxygen poor blood and pulmonary veins carry oxygen rich blood. Blood reaches body tissues by the systemic circuit. The left ventricle sends the blood to the aorta then throughout the body. It returns to the heart from the inferior and superior vena cava into the right atrium. The superior vena cava returns blood from the head, chest , and arms. And the inferior vena cava returns blood from the lower parts of the body. Coronary arteries supply blood to the heart and branch off the aorta. The hepatic portal system transports blood from the digestive tract to the liver.The hepatic portal vein carries oxygen depleted blood containing glucose and amino acids. The liver stores glucose and purifies the blood. Blood then leaves the liver by the hepatic vein.     

         

 Cardiovascular Disorders

The leading cause of death in the western world and on the rise in other countries. Cardiovascular  diseases  can cause heart attack, stroke or kidney failure. Hypertension is a condition of abnormally high blood pressure. It can be caused by stress diet and a number of other reasons. Damage can occur to the vascular system or heart and prolonged hypertension can create other complications and lead to stroke or heart attack. Normal blood pressure is considered to be 120/80 but in recent years it has been increased to 130/80. Atherosclerosis is caused by plaque lining the walls of the arteries and high cholesterol levels. The risks are blockages in the arteries that can lead to heart attack or stroke. Pain radiating in the left arm is a symptom of possible heart problems.       

         

BLOOD

A  liquid medium for transport, defense and regulating. It is composed of tissue cells 

Function and Composition

Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and carries away waste. It transports hormones to tissues for cell metabolism and contains blood cells that defend against pathogens. Some secrete antibodies that help to destroy pathogens and unwanted microbes. Blood also helps to regulate temperature and water-salt balance. Blood is a tissue fluid made up of cells, consisting of water and proteins. The liquid part is called plasma. Plasma proteins made by the liver help to maintain pH. Major plasma proteins include albumins which carry organic molecules to form osmotic pressure, fibrinogens form blood clots and three types of globulins. Alpha and beta transport hormones, cholesterol and iron, and gamma is made in white blood cells. 

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells (RBC) do not have a nucleus and lack most organelles. Through mitosis they replicate DNA rapidly and it's production is effected by oxygen. They contain plenty of hemoglobin which gives the cells it's red color pigment. They are produced in the bone marrow. The unique concave shape allows for more surface area for diffusion to occur and is used to hold oxygen. How much oxygen? Each cell can carry over a billion copies of oxygen. The cells destroy very rapidly and replicate very quickly in the liver and spleen. Anemia occurs if someone has an insufficient number of red blood cells or not enough hemoglobin. Sickle cell disease is is a blood disorder caused by the irregular shape of the cell which ruptures as it passes through the capillaries thus increasing red cell destruction. It is a chronic and lifelong disease that can shorten life span. And is an inherited condition.

White blood cells

Serving the function of immunity white blood cells ( leukocytes) fight pathogens and are larger than red blood cells. Produced in the bone marrow they can double within hours. They exist in tissue fluid and lymph because they are able to squeeze out of capillary walls. Some white blood cells are able to surround and destroy pathogens in a process called phagocytosis. Others secrete antibodies and mark unwanted invaders for removal. A protein called colony stimulating factor regulates the various types of white blood cells. There are two types of white blood cells. Granular leucocytes and Agranular leucocytes which do not have granules. Granular leucocytes consist of neutrophils, the most abundant, they are phagocytic and act as first response bacterial invasion. Basophils release a substance to trigger other cells and eosinophils multiply in response to allergy or infection. There are two types of agranular leucocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes. The second most abundant white cells lymphocytes consist of T cells and B cells. B cells make antibodies and T cells destroy pathogens. Monocytes are the largest and can become macrophages. They become dendritic cells in the skin and phagotize old cells, debris and pathogens.

Platelets

The process of blood clotting is assisted by platelets (thrombocytes). When a vessel is punctured or damaged clotting takes place to stop the bleeding. The platelets coagulate to form a clot. Platelets are also produced in the red bone marrow. Thrombocytopenia happens when platelet count is low resulting in nosebleeds, bruising, bleeding in the mouth, intestines and brain. Hemophilia is an inherited clotting disorder. Someone who has this condition bleeds easily.  

Sickle Cell 

This is a hereditary blood disorder that causes abnormal production of hemoglobin. The red blood cells become deformed, (shape of a sickle) as a result it cannot carry enough oxygen and easily break apart or create a condition of low or insufficient hemoglobin. Some will stick together causing blockages. The result of reduced oxygen will lead to tiredness, poor tissue development and malfunction of major organs leading to death. The cell mutation is a error in the DNA code that lets the body know how it should form hemoglobin. When sickle cell disease was recognized, clinicians saw that it ran more in families of African descent.The sickle cell gene is prevalent in Africa in areas with malaria. Researcher found that this trait benefited those in areas with malaria. It requires the individual to inherit both genes in order to acquire this disease. 

Blood Types

Determining blood type is important in transfusions. Two distinctions the ABO group and Rh group make up blood type. There are four combinations to the ABO group. Type A, B, AB, and O. Type A carries the A antigens and anti-B antibodies, type B the B antigens and anti- A antibodies, type AB the A and B antigens, and type-O the anti- A &B antigens. The second distinction Rh blood group determines the Rh factor of antibodies. 

Blood Pressure

Blood pressure moves blood in the arteries and is measured by a sphygmomanometer at the brachial artery. The greatest pressure is called systolic and the lowest pressure when the heart is at relaxation is called diastolic. Normal blood pressure is 120/80. Hypertension is the result of high blood pressure and hypotension is the result of low blood pressure. 

   

References:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart 

http://www.howstuffworks.com/heart.htm

http: // tutorials.com/09/0902/0902.asp

Lymphatic System and Immunity

http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/projects/flies/humanImmune.html

 Lymphatic System Immunity and Microbes

I  Microbes and Pathogens

II. Lymphatic System

III. Nonspecific Defenses

IV.  Specific Defenses

V. Acquired Immunity

VI.  Hypersensitivity Reactions

V. AIDS

Lymphatic System Immunity and Microbes

The Lymphatic system works in conjunction with the cardiovascular system in aiding immunity.

Microbes and Pathogens

Bacteria or microbes are everywhere and beneficial to life. However some are harmful to humans and are known as pathogens mainly bacteria and viruses. Bacteria are prokaryotes, don't have a nucleus and are independent cells. They reproduce identical copies by binary fusion. Disease is caused by the growth of bacteria or the release of toxins. Common diseases are strep throat, tuberculosis, syphilis, and food poisoning.

Viruses are chemicals that require a host so they are said to be acellular and cannot live independently. They consist of two parts, an inner core of nucleic acid and the outer caspid of protein units. It relies on the enzymes and ribosomes of the host for reproduction and unlike cellular organisms it doesn't need DNA, but may use various enzymes or an RNA genome. Colds, flu, measles, chicken pox, polio, and AIDS are viral.

Lymphatic System

This system consists of the lymphatic vessels and organs functioning to maintain homeostasis. To do this there are four main functions. Excess tissue fluid is absorbed by the lymphatic capillaries emptying into the bloodstream. Fat is carried to the blood by capillaries in the small intestines called lacteals. Lymphocytes are produced and the system protects against pathogens. 

The Lymphatic vessels consist of capillaries, vessels and ducts that empty lymph into the cardiovascular veins in the shoulder. Lymph is colorless and contains lipids. There are two ducts, the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct. 

The primary lymphatic organs are bone marrow and the thymus gland, and the secondary are the lymph nodes and spleen. White blood cells mature in the bone marrow with the exception of T cells which pass through the thymus. The secondary organs purify and monitor the lymph. The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ where macrophages engulf debris and pathogens. Lymph nodes filters lymph in compartments where macrophages also engulf debris and pathogens.

Nonspecific Defenses

All pathogens are met by barriers to entry and the inflammatory response. The body's first line of defense the skin and mucous membranes serves as a barrier to infection. Chemical barriers also defend the body. Secretions from oil glands of the skin have chemicals that weaken or kill bacteria. Lysozyme in saliva, perspiration, and tears is antibacterial. Urine flushes bacteria from the body and stomach acids kill or prevent the growth of bacteria. Lastly, natural flora in the mouth, intestines, and elsewhere create a protective barrier to combat pathogens. Antibiotics reduce the effectiveness of normal flora. The second line of defense the inflammatory response  sends neutrophils and macrophages to engulf pathogens. A group of complement protein assist in the immunity.Blood plasma proteins called complement proteins trigger histamine and attract phagocytes. A membrane attack complex creates holes in bacteria and viruses causing them to burst. Interferons bind to receptors and interfere with viral replication.  

Specific Defenses

If nonspecific defenses are unsuccessful in preventing infection, specific defenses are prompted to destroy the disease causing agent. Antigens are foreign invaders such as bacteria, mold, viruses, molds, and parasitic worms. Some cancer cells are antigens. Lymphocytes are the main specific defense. It is able to differentiate into other types of B cells and T cells. By recognizing antigens their receptors bind with the antigen. Antigens are numerous so there is a large diversity of B cells and T cells to protect the body. B cells and T cells are able to clone themselves if they bind with an antigen.

B cells perform anti-mediating immunity by differentiating into plasma cells and memory B cells. The receptors of the cell must fit the antigens shape for it to expand.  B cells, are made in the bone marrow that become plasma cells that produce and secrete antibodies. As B cells clone they sometimes become memory cells. This enables long term immunity. Apoptosis, the programmed death of cells happens when the likelihood of infection subsides, and the the cells are no longer needed.

Shaped like a Y, antibodies are protein cells with two arms. Each arm having a long polypeptide chain and a short polypeptide chain. At the trunk, there are constant regions, where the sequence of amino acids is set. The structure of the constant region determines the class of the antibody. These proteins are made by transcription

and translation of DNA.

There are five classes of circulating antibodies. IgG are mainly found in the blood, lymph, and tissue fluid. It can cross the placenta giving a newborn partial immunity.IgM antibodies activate the complement system and appear quickly after an infection. IgA  have two Y-shaped structures found in body secretions. IgD antibodies serve as receptors on B-cells. IgE prevent parasitic worm infections and can prompt allergic responses.

T cells attack diseased cells and cancer cells by the action of cell -mediating immunity. T cell receptors (TCR) bind to invaders. Cytotoxic T cells or macrophages then engulf the invading microbe.T-cells recognize antigens with the help of an antigen presenting cell (APC) such as a macrophage. APC' s travel to the spleen and lymph node, after phagocytizing a pathogen. Helper T cells secrete cytokines that assist in the response of all types of immune cells. T cells.

Acquired Immunity

There are two types, active, when the individual produces the antibody and passive, when it is given as an injection. A individual can develop an immunity to a pathogen. It is also common to induce active immunity by immunization. Vaccines have antigens of the pathogens. Active immunity is longer lasting and is dependent on the presence of B cells and T memory cells. Individual with insufficient antibodies can receive injections of antibodies or immune cells but they are short lasting since the body does not produce it's own.

Hypersensitivity Reactions

Allergies can result in tissue damage, brought about by hypersensitivity to substances. Sometimes the reaction is immediate and is caused by the antibody IgE. Anaphylactic shock happens as the allergen enters the bloodstream. Delayed reactions is initiated by memory T cells. Tissue rejection is when the immune system recognizes that a tissue is not "self" as in transplants.        

 

AIDS

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome is a set of symptoms and conditions resulting from the virus caused by (HIV) human immunodeficiency virus. This condition weakens the immune system and leaves the individual susceptible to opportunistic infections. HIV is transmitted through contact bodily fluid to the blood or mucous membrane.  HIV is a retrovirus of a single strand of DNA surrounded by proteins. It enters the cell where it replicates by the transcription of RNA. As it gets into the cell it integrates into DNA. From there it can make hundreds of copies of itself with RNA. As it duplicates it buds out. HIV infects helper T cells calls in cells to kill own cells, thus without T cells immunity is compromised. 

After infection it makes many copies and the helper T cells drop within 3-6 weeks. THe antibodies stimulate a response. HIV in the blood drops to nothing in 12 weeks. The antibodies and helper T cells are ready to attack after 3 months so the illness goes into clinical latency. As the number of helper T cells star to drop there aren't enough cells to mount a response. This is when opportunistic infections take hold. HIV doesn't kill but weakens the body's defenses. 

An estimated 37 million people worldwide live with this disease and it has killed an estimated 2.5 million. AIDS is a pandemic with over three quarters of the deaths occurring in sub-Saharan Africa. Some researchers believe that it originated in sub-Saharan Africa during the twentieth century. It was initially recognized by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981.  

     

       

Nutrition

Food and Nutrition

I.  Overview of Digestion

    First Part of the Digestive Tract

    The Stomach and Small Intestine

    The Three Accessory Organs & Regulation of Secretions

    The Large Intestine

II.  Nutrition

Overview of Digestion

The organs of the within the gastrointestinal tract make up the digestive system. Foods are broken down to unit molecules, sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol, so it can be transported by the blood to the cells. Digestion requires ingestion, movement, absorption, and elimination. Ingestion takes place in the mouth by chewing the food. Digestion is mechanical when food is divided into pieces in preparation for digestive enzymes and occurs in the stomach and mouth. Chemical digestion starts at the mouth and ends at the small intestines. Movement of the GI tract passes food from organ to organ. When the unit molecules cross the walls of the tract absorption occurs. Elimination is the removal of unwanted wastes.

The Gi tract resembles a garden hose that has four layers. The first layer the mucosa protects the wall from the enzymes and produces mucus. The submucosa the second layer protect against disease and responds by inflammation. It is made of connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. The third layer contracts to move food along the tract. It contains two layers of smooth muscle. The fourth outermost layer the serosa secretes serous fluid.

First Part of the Digestive Tract

The mouth, pharynx, and esophagus make up the first part of the digestive tract. From the mouth food is taken in which begins the process of mechanical and chemical digestion. Salivary glands produce an enzyme, salivary amalase that starts the process of digesting starch. As chewing starts mechanical digestion occurs. The food passes the pharynx as is is swallowed. It is at this point that the food can go the wrong way like to the nasal passages. The action of peristalsis pushes the food along the esophagus where chemical digestion takes place. At the stomach a sphincter lets food pass as it is relaxed but when the contents back up along the esophagus, acid reflux known as heartburn occurs. 

The  Stomach and Small Intestine

Digestion is completed at the stomach and small intestine. The stomach is sack shaped sitting beneath the diaphragm. It does not absorb nutrients but mechanically breaks down food with gastric juice. The juice contains pepsin that digests protein, hydrochloric acid (HCI) and mucus. HCI breaks down connective tissue in meat. The small intestine is long and narrow in diameter. Enzymes within the intestine digest primary carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The duct at the duodenum receives secreted enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver and gallbladder to emulsify fat and hydrolyzed to glycerol and fatty acids by lipase in pancreatic juice. The digestion of carbohydrates and glucose starts with amylase and is completed by intestinal enzymes. And proteins and amino acids are  broken down by trypsin and an intestinal enzyme. The intestine have a slightly pH balance. 

Absorption of sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol occur in the walls of the small intestine. Fingerlike projection call villi line the walls of the intestine and extensions called microvilli  provide more surface area for absorption. It is here in the villus where nutrients are absorbed, the lacteals of the villus, a small lymphatic capillary. Sugars and amino acids enter the blood capillaries of the a villus and glycerol and fatty acids the epithelial cells. From this they reach the cells by the blood.

The Three Accessory Organs & Regulation of Secretions

These three organs include the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. A grayish pink fish shaped organ stretched behind the stomach. It produces pancreatic juice, and is also an endocrine gland that secretes insulin. Insulin is a protein usually secreted after a meal stimulating cells to take up glucose for storage or metabolism. If the blood glucose level is too high insulin is produced to to regulate glucose. Type 2 diabeties is the result of this extended condition. Type 1 diabetics produce no insulin. The liver and pancreas regulate constant blood glucose level. 

The liver sits below the diaphragm consisting of approximately 100,000 lobules performing various functions. It filters blood via the hepatic portal vein from the capillary bed of the GI Tract and into the capillaries of the lobules. Besides glucose it also stores iron and vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12. Plasma proteins are made in the liver and cholesterol is also regulated here. The liver makes bile that is stored in the gall bladder, a pear shaped organ below the liver. Gallstones are created here. It's other functions are destroying old rbc's , excreting bilirubin, and producing urea after breaking down amino acids.

The nervous system and digestive juices control digestive juices. The smell of food stimulates gastric secretions. Gastrin is made after eating a protein rich meal. Other hormones made in the duodenal are secretin and CCK (cholecystokinin). Secretin is secreted by acid and fat and protein stimulate the release of CCK.

The Large Intestine

Shorter but wider than the small intestine it includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. At the end of the cecum lies vermiform appendix for fighting infections. Appendicitis is when it becomes infected. The colon  follows the right side, where the traverse colon then crosses and follows the left side as the sigmoid colon enters the rectum which opens to the anus where defecation occurs.

The Function of the large intestine is to absorb water and vitamins made by intestinal flora and to break down indigestible material, and to produce B complex and vitamin K. Feces are formed of water and solids. The solids comprise of bacteria, fiber, and indigestible materials. Defecation is assisted by peristalsis. Feces collect in the rectum, nerve impulses contract the rectal muscles and the anal sphincters relax allowing feces to exit through the anus.     

Nutrition 

Classes of Nutrients

Nutrients assist in providing energy, cellular metabolism and growth and development. Carbohydrates are simple or complex. Used as the body's energy source, carbohydrates are needed to convert to glucose. The brain requires glucose. Cakes, cookies and white bread are refined so they lack nutrients. The healthier choice are complex carbs such as beans, whole-grains, nuts and fruits which supply nutrients and fiber. A diet high in refined carbs can cause health issues. Refined carbs have a high glycemic index (GI) that creates a response to glucose by overproducing insulin. This may lead to insulin resistance or diabeties type 2. The amino acid in proteins are essential to the body's functions. Deficiency in one leads to complications. Amino acids are found in legumes, vegetable, nuts, but are most plentiful in meats. Limiting proteins is harmful for the body. Too much protein leads to cause dehydration or kidney stones. Lipids include fats, oils, and cholesterol. Saturated fats can cause plaque and caardiovascular disease they are mainly butters and meats. Unsaturated fats or essential fatty acids come from plant sources like corn and safflower. Olive oil contain more monosaturated fatty acids. Omega -3 in olive oil is said to protect against heart disease. Salmon trout, and sardines are another good source. Trans-fatty acids are hydrogenated and may reduce the function of cell membrane receptors that clear cholesterol from the blood. they are found in vegetable shortening and commercially packaged products.

Minerals

Minerals are comprised of major and trace minerals. They are important to cll constitution, body fluids and tissues. Stress can reduce magnesium and a high fiber diet can deplete zinc. Calcium is essential to bones, teeth, nerve conduction, and muscle contraction. When it is deficient osteoporosis can set in. Sodium is very important in regulating the body's water balance. Hypertension is the result of excessive salt intake. Thus the balance of mineral intake is important.

Vitamins

The body utilizes vitamins for metabolic functions. There are 13 vitamins which are either water soluble or fat soluble. Antioxidants counter free radicals. Vitamin C, E, and A. are antioxidants and are found in fruits and vegetables. The food pyramid suggests a portion of fruit and vegetables daily. Vitamin D found in milk protects against rickets.

Nutritious Meals        

Many health problems are the result of diet. A person can determine the calories needed for daily activity and cut back calories that is not needed. By using the food pyramid as a guide you can distribute those calories in planning a more nutritious meal.

Eating Disorders

Eating disorder involve personal, cultural, emotional, and biological factors. Often a person is not happy with their self image.the conditions of anorexia, bulimia and obesity can cause health problems such as malnutrition, disability and even death. 

-How healthy a daily diet do you think this is?  Why?

I think overall it's a fairly healthy diet. According to the 2005 USDA food guide the two food groups I did not include were fruits and milk. The meal contained protein from fish with a balance of carbs and vegetables. The chart shows that the daily requirements were fulfilled for vitamins and minerals. 

-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything?

According to the chart my sodium intake is above what it needs to be. And the carb count is on the slightly high side as well. I could possible substitute steamed vegetables or soup that is low in sodium. I don't drink milk, so I guess soymilk might be be a replacement. I was glad to see that the saturated fat and cholesterol were within healthy limits 

-Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful?  Why or why not?

Calculating percentages of nutritional value for a day or for a sitting is something I've never done. I was surprised by some of the numbers. My main concern was the sodium and carbs. I think the site is helpful and fun and easy to use. It gives me a better idea of my overall eating habits.

Food for Thought

We have a wide variety of food choices today. There are conventionally grown foods, organic foods and restaurants that serve organic only, vegetarian, raw, etc. We are exposed to so many different cultural cuisines that lend variety to the foods we consume, prepare, and purchase. I think the current American diet allows for a lot of versatility.  

Growing up, I remember my diet consisting largely of what was available at the local supermarkets. Most of the processed foods contained a lot of salt, hydrogenated oils, sugar, and preservatives. The foods were typical of the commercial American diet. I remember our most common foods such as spaghetti, meatloaf, Campbell soup, Hostesss cup cakes, chips and pasteries, although I didn't care much for sodas. What we knew was that the four main food groups are important for a healthy and well rounded diet. However, it did not address issues such as the quality of foods or processed and packaged foods. So we would put a handful of potato chips on the side and that would be our carbohydrate requirement. My mother was more in favor of natural foods but we tended to adopt the current trends of eating. We did have homestyle meals like chicken soup and stuffed cabbage corned beef,etc. and plenty of fruits and vegetables. 

Thanksgiving was probably the busiest time when we gathered to help out in preparing the evening meal. Other than that we were often preoccupied with other things and meal times were not much of an event. I've since come to appreciate how some cultures utilize meal times as a time for relaxation and socializing. It adds another dimension to life. I think there is value in some cultures that hold significance to harvest, ceremony and preparation. 

When foods are grown locally there is a community that supports and is more conscience of the environment. Local farmers tend to care more about the crops they produce for their community. They are often more in touch with the communities needs and in some areas such as the coast of California and Oregon there are numerous small farms that sell their crops when it is seasonally best. This provides the consumer with better quality foods.   

What I also find is that some diets are more concerned with convenience and lack nutritional value. The diet I grew accustomed to no longer appeals to me because I now feel healthier eating other foods. Knowing this I try to choose foods that are more nutritious in nature. This would include natural foods and not fortified foods. And have recently started to read about and have tried making foods that are healthier for the body. For some time it was my thought that I would have to give up flavorful or hearty foods to eat healthy. Now I'm finding that this is not true and am very interested in trying new recipes and find that not all are difficult or time consuming. Some are very simple, have less calories, and are surprisingly flavorful and nourishing for the body and mind. 

I think the issue of nutrition is different from individual to individual and from culture to culture. From my own experience I tend to rotate between certain foods and eating habits. I might stick to vegetables and grains and very little meat and mostly fish. Or depending on my energy level and how my body feels I might switch to mostly fruits and vegetables. I don't often have meat as my main course. The changing of my diet resembles the Chinese theory of eating different foods for changing seasons and adjusting to the bodies needs. 

It seems that our culture is constantly reinventing specialized diet, such as the Low Carb Diet, South Beach Diet, etc. And we go through phases of what's popular such as Thai, Mediteranean, Japanese, to name a few. Because we are constantly experimenting, I feel the American diet will always be changing.   

Lab Data

Exercise Physiology Lab Project

Unit II Exercise Lab Project

Purpose:

This lab project will involve gathering the data needed to determine how different activities affect the the metabolic rate. The four measurements that will be recorded are pulse, respiration rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure. Each activity is performed five times and the mean is recorded. The results will determine how activity affects the cardiovascular and respiratory system. The mean numbers are graphed and compared to determine if the data supports the following hypothesis. 

Hypothesis:

With increased activity there will be an increase in metabolic functions. 

Cells require oxygen. Oxygen and blood flow are required to keep the body functioning. Increased blood flow increases pulse and pressure. The respiration of the lungs is important for bringing oxygen throughout the body.     

Data will be recorded from three activities, eating, stretching/bending, and jumping jacks. It is expected that the metabolic rates will increase with increase in activity.  

Analysis of Data: Results of the data collected from the activities showed increase in metabolic rates for certain activities. The activities of stretching and jumping jacks matched the initial hypothesis in the expectation of increases in metabolic rate.

Some data that did not correspond with the hypothesis. The largest variance between the baseline readings and the first activity of eating appears in the systolic measurement. The data gathered from the activity of eating resulted in a decrease in the measurement of systolic blood pressure and only a slight increase in diastolic blood pressure. Respiration for the activity of eating increased just slightly. In gathering the data, some individual measurements of systolic and diastolic rates were lower after eating, surprisingly.    

Problems with data:

The systolic readings for activity one seem the most inconsistent.  Not sure if it is due to technique or if reading was taken inaccurately. If reading is accurate would eating which involves digestion reduce systolic blood pressure?

Conclusion:

During activity the heart needs to pump faster to get the flow of blood to the body parts and the need for oxygen during activity would raise metabolic rates. The data for activities 2 and 3 support the hypothesis. However, activity 1 did not support the theory because of the decrease in systolic bp. 

Blood Pressure Lab

State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure. 

Blood pressure tends to rise with age and males traditionally had higher blood pressure. 

Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

We can affect average blood pressure readings by including more women or a younger age group to lower the readings or an older age group to increase the average blood pressure readings.

How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record? I'd record the individual blood pressure readings and compare the group averages. 

The group of individuals will be categorized by gender and age group.  The data recorded would include the systolic and diastolic readings.   

Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

For both the male and female groups, the older age group tended to have higher average readings. However there was exceptions. A few of the individuals within the group had higher than average readings that affected the overall average. Also, the female age group between the age of 18-24 appeared to be in better health.   

Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

The results did not fully support my hypothesis. Other factors that determine blood pressure averages are health history such as diet and exercise.

During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading? 

A few individual showed higher than average blood pressure. Their medical charts included family history or other factors.

List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

The risk factors include a family history of hypertension, alcohol use, high salt-intake and lack of exercise.

What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure? 

Obesity causes the heart to work harder. In addition the fat or cholesterol that accumulates in the arteries can affect blood pressure causing overweight persons to be at higher risk of  having elevated levels of blood pressure In combination with obesity, smoking, drug use, diet, exercise and lifestyle. Too much stress is a contributing factor.